Drawings and Prints, European Sculpture and Decorative Arts, American Art, and the Costume Institute. The objects represent the wide scope of our collections and were made using a number of techniques, including cut-paper and parchment, embossed and gilded paper, paper filigree, decoupage, and papier-māché. The term papier-māché can be misleading to those who expect it to describe a particular process. Instead, it is a generic term used to represent a variety of techniques utilizing paper in both pulp and sheet form, in combination with other materials and processes. Further explanations of these processes are available in numerous published sources, some of which can be found in the references provided. Cut-paper portrait of Jonathan Swift, 1774, by Nathaniel Bermingham (b. Ireland ca. 1720, active 1736–1774), in a brown oval wood frame. White cut paper with pen and brown-black ink additions, mounted on black silk. Frame: 14 x 11 inches (35.6 x 27.9 cm). Glenn Tilley Morse Collection, Bequest of Glenn Tilley Morse, 1950. 50.602.135. \[Figure 1\] Nathaniel Bermingham is perhaps the best-known and among the most accomplished paper cutters of eighteenth-century England. This finely cut paper portrait of the Anglo-Irish cleric and writer Jonathan Swift (1667– 1745) emulates an engraved print. Copying from prints was a common practice for both professional and amateur artists, but recreating an engraving in paper is fairly unusual. In this piece, Bermingham used inked lines to create areas of shade and the illusion of even more finely cut lines. Figure 1. Cut-paper portrait of Jonathan Swift, 1774, by Nathaniel Bermingham. All works reproduced in this article, Collection The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. All images © The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. 4 - hand papermaking Eight cut and embossed kunstbillets in an eighteenth-century-style gilt wooden frame, probably Viennese, nineteenth century. Gouache on card, cut and embossed paper, printed or inscribed mottoes, silk gauze, gilded paper borders, mounted on red silk, 14 1/16 x 16 7/16 x 1 3/8 inches (35.7 x 41.8 x 3.5 cm). Gift of Mrs. Richard Riddell, 1984. 1984.1164.22. \[Figure 3\] This collection of kunstbillets (poetic greeting cards made as gifts for friends and loved ones) offers a taste of the myriad of images and techniques characteristic of Viennese ephemera of the nineteenth century. The detail in these brightly colored cards is impressive and many of their frames appear to be of true gold or silver. All of the cards have painted and cut paper vignettes with tiny inscribed messages. Some include papers of embossed colored foil and textile flowers. Each vignette is mounted onto colored silk gauze, which supports the paper elements and provides a backing. Printed book with hand-colored fashion plates printed on machine-embossed lace paper. Joseph Méry (French, 1798–1865), Les Joyaux, Perles et parures. Hand-colored steel engravings by Charles Geoffroy (French, 1819–1882), after Paul Gavarni (French, 1804–1866). From a two-volume set published by Gabriel de Gonet, Paris, 1850. 11 5/16 x 8 1/16 x 1 3/8 inches (28.8 x 20.4 x 3.5 cm). Gift of Albert Gallatin, 1933. 33.76.4. \[Figure 4\] This is the first volume of a rare two-volume set of chine collé fashion plates illustrated by Garvarni, in which the steel engravings by Geoffrey are printed and hand-colored on machine-made paper with borders embossed and cut in a variety of lace patterns. Each colored plate is followed by a duplicate uncolored plate. Shown here is La Cassolette. The Museum's copy is bound by Victor Champs (French, 1844– 1912), in a blue half-leather binding with marbled paper. Although very unusual, books with hand-cut lace pages were made as early as the seventeenth century. The only example I have seen of this technique is Marie de Medici's prayer book, an illuminated manuscript with lace borders cut from parchment, in the collection of the Walters Art Museum in Baltimore (MS W.494). 3 Nathaniel Bermingham was apprenticed to a heraldic painter in Dublin. He left Ireland for London in 1744. Bermingham experimented in many techniques using cut paper, including portraits, landscapes, and coats of arms of cut-paper or parchment, which were sometimes finished in pencil or other materials. In particular, he utilized a pastel portrait technique that presented the sitter in profile. To achieve a sharp outline, the profile was cut from a separate piece of white paper and pasted to a black paper background. The edges of the profile were then shaded in pastel, obscuring the paper appliqué. 1 Small boy wearing a black hat holding a heart, with a cut-parchment lace border, in a wood and gilt-metal frame, probably Viennese, eighteenth century. Portrait: gouache and watercolor on paper; parchment embellished with ink and gouache. 2 ½ x 2 ½ x ¾ inches (6.4 x 6.4 x 1.9 cm). Gift of Mrs. Richard Riddell, 1984. 1984.1164.2533. \[Figure 2\] Cutting parchment, and later paper, in imitation of lace textiles began in southern Europe in the early seventeenth century. These early paper lace devotional works usually depicted portraits of saints, either painted in gouache or cut entirely in parchment with lace borders. The parchment used for cutting is, as in the case of the portrait of the young boy, out of thin, smooth, white material, probably calfskin. Because of its extreme strength, parchment can be cut in fine detail that would be difficult to emulate in paper. This diminutive portrait with its lovely cut and multi-colored painted border is from the collection of Mrs. Richard Riddell, given to the Museum's Department of Drawings and Prints over a twenty-five year period. Mrs. Riddell's magnificent collection includes seventeenth- to early nineteenth-century spitzenbilder (lace pictures), glückwunschkarten (greeting cards), Wiener kunstbillets (Viennese art tickets), early cut-vellum and paper pictures, and designs for almanacs. 2 Figure 2. Eighteenth-century gouache and watercolor portrait with a cut-parchment lace border. Figure 3. Cut and embossed paper kuntsbillets mounted in a gilt wooden frame, nineteenth century Papier-māché helmet from a set of costume armor in classical style, French, (Paris), ca. 1780. Papier-māché, linen, bole, gold leaf, graphite, 15 ¾ x 7 11/16 x 13 ¾ inches (40 x 19.5 x 35 cm). Purchase, gifts from various donors, 1987. 1988.65.1. \[Figure 5\] Pageants in pseudoclassical dress were popular in Europe from the sixteenth through eighteenth centuries. This stylized Greek helmet, decorated with mythological and allegorical figures, may have been worn for a theatrical performance or court festivity. Inside the helmet is the original paper label that identifies the Parisian maker as Halle, dit Mercier, and advertises his ability to provide helmets, shields, masks, costumes, and scenery for any occasion. The helmet has been restored and its original profile is changed. Conservator's notes describe that the helmet was constructed in two halves of papier-māché and linen with joins down the center. Details were made separately and attached to the helmet. The base of the helmet is dark-gray graphite and the decorative elements are gold leaf over bole. Two different gold surfaces are used—a matte gold, over ochre bole for the body of the mermaid; and burnished glossy gold, over red bole for the scales on the mermaid's body. 4 Lacquered papier-māché shaffron; a ceremonial horse's head defense, in the form of a dragon head, Japanese, nineteenth century. Papier-māché, wood, lacquer, pigments, gold, hair, 21 x 13 inches (53.3 x 33 cm). Bequest of George C. Stone, 1935. 36.25.499. \[See illustration on front cover.\] Examples of lacquered papier-māché headwear for humans and animals are on display in the Arms and Armor galleries—a samurai's helmet (36.25.188a) and a ceremonial head defense for a horse (04.4.20), similar to the one pictured here. The lacquered papiermāché media was used to create many styles and characters, and provided the desirable assets of lightness and water resistance. This mixed-media shaffron was possibly made for one of the sankin kotai (alternate attendance) processions that nobles were required to make to Edo. Unlike Western techniques of papiermāché constructed with paper strips or pulped paper (with other additives), the papier-māché of the Edo period that I have observed, appear to be constructed from smooth, laminated sheets of paper, shaped over a form, painted, and lacquered. 5 Figure 4. Hand-colored fashion plate printed on machine-embossed lace paper, French, 1850. 6 - hand papermaking Papier-māché covered urn of "porphyry and gold" (one of a pair), French, nineteenth century (ca. 1830–1850). Papier-māché, paint, wood, 13 ½ x 12 ½ x 7 inches (34.3 x 31.8 x 17.8 cm). Gift of J. Pierpont Morgan, 1906. 07.225.410.1 a, b. \[Figure 6\] This is one of a pair of impressive, covered papier-māché urns that are painted in imitation of porphyry (a brown-toned semi-precious stone) with gold ornamentation. The bases of the urns are wooden blocks, which attach to the body of the urns with wooden pins. The urns were part of the Hoentschell collection of decorative arts, a large collection that initiated the establishment of the Decorative Arts department and also to the building of the Morgan Wing. Secretary desk with decoupage decoration in imitation of hand painting, Italian (Venice), early eighteenth century (ca. 1730–1735). Pine; carved, painted, gilded, and varnished linden wood, decorated with colored decoupage prints on paper; mirror glass. 102 x 44 x 23 inches (259.1 x 111.8 x 58.4 cm). Fletcher Fund, 1925 25.134.1. \[Figure 7\] This striking secretary, on permanent display in the Venetian bedroom, is constructed of two parts. It is made of green-lacquered wood, decorated with applied hand-colored engravings depicting a wide range of subjects, including hunting scenes, courting couples, and shipwrecks. The imagery is painted in green, red, and orange, covering nearly the entire surface of the secretary. This desk is an example of the eighteenth-century passion for decoupage—cutout and hand-colored prints, pasted onto prepared surfaces and covered in many layers of varnish—a technique also known as lacca povera, or "poor man's lacquer." The decoupage technique is meant to imitate painted decoration and Asian lacquer. Decoupage was first practiced throughout Europe at the end of the seventeenth century, and was used throughout the eighteenth century. To satisfy the demand for suitable images, prints were published exclusively for decoupage purposes in numerous motifs and sizes. The Remondini firm in Figure 7. Detail of a secretary desk with decoupage decoration in imitation of hand painting, Italian, early eighteen century. Bassano, Italy, most prominently a producer of colorful blockprinted decorative papers, advertised prints in their catalogues from 1751. 6 Papier-māché side chair (one of a pair), English, mid-nineteenth century. Blacklacquered, painted, and gilded wood and papier-māché, inlaid mother-of-pearl, red velvet cushions, 33 ½ x 17 ¼ x 17 inches (84.5 x 43.8 x 43.2 cm). Gift of George E. Dix, 1999. 1999.50.3. \[Figure 8\] This chair has a pierced, balloon-shaped back decorated in the center with a painted shield-shaped cartouche filled with red roses and mother-of-pearl flowers. It has a caned seat, a shaped front seat rail, and rests on cabriole front legs and saber-shaped back legs. The chair frame is decorated with gold ornament and applied pieces of mother-of-pearl. Papier-māché furniture was very fashionable in England from the beginning of the nineteenth century through the 1860s. In The Technology and Conservation Treatment of a Nineteenth Century English "Papier-Mache" Chair, conservators Dianne van der Reyden and Donald C. Williams provide an excellent description of the development and nature of the processes involved in the manufacture of papier-māché furniture as well as an excellent bibliography. In general, paper boards of a variety of types, came to be used instead of wood for "lacquered" furniture because the various processes used to emulate Oriental lacquer required heat to cure. As exposure to heat would crack and distort wood, paper was found to be a more stable, lightweight, and cost-effective alternative. This chair, similar to the one examined in the article mentioned above, was probably constructed out of many layers of hard paper panels that were hand smoothed into shaped molds. After the chair body was formed, the shell, lacquer, and painted decoration would have been applied. 7Coat of arms with the royal arms of Great Britain in paper filigree, English, seventeenth century (1660–1688). Paper filigree (quillwork) with gilded edges, gold leaf, blue, red, and green paint; red, white, and blue silk fabric; stained wood; glass frame. 17 ¾ x 14 x 4 ¼ inches (45.1 x 35.6 x 10.80 cm). Rogers Fund, 1911. 11.117.13. \[Figure 9\] Armorial panels with royal coats of arms would have been hung in palaces, public buildings, or in the homes of royal employees to identify the current reign. Most of these were made of carved and polychrome wood. This detailed piece, possibly in imitation of a gilded wooden panel, is true to the Baroque sculptural aesthetic; it is three-dimensional, exuberant, and colorful. Although filigree was practiced by amateurs, the outstanding quality of this armorial panel makes it clear that it was the work of professionals. The filigree work is made up of many thousands of tiny strips of paper which have been formed into cones, coils, petal forms, and crimped edging, pasted together to create the arms of Great Britain in relief, surrounded by a border made of swag forms and flowers. This particular piece has parallels to metallic embroideries of the period. Paper filigree, also referred to as quillwork, uses narrow paper strips that are rolled, shaped, and attached together to create decorative designs, often resembling gold filigree or scrollwork, which could be applied to any type of decorative object. The term quillwork refers to the use of a feather quill to serve as a support on which to form the rolled paper coils. This craft began during the Renaissance, when Italian and French nuns and monks used quillwork made from parchment to create and decorate religious items. In the eighteenth century, in Europe and America, paper filigree was revived by ladies of the upper classes for use on cabinets, urns, picture frames, tea caddies, and many other objects. Very often paper filigree was used in mixed-media wall sconces Figure 10. Coat of arms in paper filigree, emulating a gilded wood panel, American, 1731. and framed illustrated scenes that also employed wax, mica, wool, and other shiny and textured materials in addition to the filigree.8 Coat of arms, paper emulating a gilded wood panel, American (Northeast), 1731 (dated at bottom).Paper filigree (quillwork), gold leaf, in a stained wood and glass frame, 22 x 22 x 4 1/8 inches (55.9 x 55.9 x 10.5 cm). Rogers Fund, 1938. 38.121.1. \[Figure 10\] This armorial panel, on view in the Hewlett Room (American Wing), depicts a lozenge-shaped, heraldic shield with three stag heads, surmounted by a helmet and stag head. The shield is surrounded by a three-dimensional leafy border. It is constructed from white, orange, and blue paper filigree. The edges of the filigree are gilded. The filigree forms are tight coils, tassels, and leafy branches. The filigree shield is mounted on a blue paper backing. Embossed paper "straw" hat, British, ca. 1760–1770. Paper, straw, silk, linen. Diameter: 10 inches (25.4 cm). Purchase, gifts from various donors, 1997. 1997.369. \[Figure 11\] Embossed paper hats and bonnets, such as the two shown in this article, are accurate copies of the real straw hats of the period. The paper versions were probably inexpensive and meant for casual use. It is surprising that they have lasted so long and in such good condition, considering their ephemeral nature. This is an extremely shallow circular hat with an embossed pattern of a stylized straight-brim straw hat. The interior of the hat is trimmed with linen tape. The brim and crown of the hat are connected by a narrow strip of plaited straw. Silk floss fly fringe trims the outer edge of the brim and around the area where the brim meets the crown and where the fly fringe is tied in a bow at the base of the crown. Figure 9. Coat of arms in paper filigree, English, seventeenth century. 8 - hand papermaking "Straw" coal scuttle bonnet made of embossed paper, British, 1830–1835. Embossed paper, silk. Length: 13 ½ inches (34.2 cm). Purchase, Judith and Gerson Leiber Fund, 1996. 1996.267. \[Figure 12\] This pale yellow bonnet is made of several layers of paper embossed to simulate Leghorn straw. The elements of the bonnet are stitched together. The underside of the paper is smooth, with only a slight indication of the surface pattern. The stiff barrel crown is constructed of several layers of paper with a seam at the left side of the crown. The bonnet has a wide, deep brim with a cream silk trim along the edge of the brim. The cording is silk-covered wire along the area where the crown meets the brim. There is a bavolet (a flap to protect the wearer's neck from sun) that is lined with cream silk. Papier-māché trade catalog issued by Charles Frederick Bielefeld (British, active 1840s). Illustrated Tariff of the Improved Papier-Māché Picture Frames, also, Enriched Mouldings, made by machinery in twelve feet lengths, without join. Illustrated with wood engravings and lithographs, published by Joseph Rickerby, London, 1847. 9 3/16 x 5 5/8 x ¼ inches (23.3 x 14.3 x 0.6 cm). Harris Brisbane Dick Fund, 1940. 40.15. \[Figures 13a & 13b\] In the 1840s, Charles Fredrick Bielefeld dominated the production of papier-māché ornament in England and held patents for both the materials for moldings and for the reproduction of the molds. Papier-māché was considered an acceptable and even excellent substitute for imitating or restoring carved wood or plaster moldings and other architectural elements. It was much less expensive and lighter weight than wood or plaster. This successful firm made many ornamental embellishments and objects for home decoration, including ceiling decorations and moldings, fireplace surrounds, window cornices, chair rails, picture frames, and mirrors, all illustrated in this and other catalogs. In addition to household objects and architectural elements, Bielefeld manufactured large, durable papier-māché panels, which were used in the interiors of ships and fine homes and also for the walls of prefabricated housing. Bielefeld's patent for durable molds included the use of iron filings in the mix to provide durability and resilience. After being formed, the papier-māché ornaments, made of many layers of paper, were dried naturally and then dried again in stoves, after being saturated in oil. The objects described in this article are only a sampling of the Museum's large collection of paper objects. More can be seen at the Museum and on our website (www.metmuseum.org). Some of the objects described above are on view in the galleries and others are housed in departmental storerooms. Objects not on view are available for serious research purposes, by appointment. I would like to thank the following Museum staff for their assistance: Constance McPhee and Elizabeth Zanis (Department of Drawings and Prints); Daniėlle Kisluk-Grosheide and Melinda Watt (European Sculpture and Decorative Arts); Donald LaRocca (Arms and Armor); Christine Paulocik and Elizabeth Bryan (Costume Institute); Amelia Peck (American Decorative Arts); Jeri Wagner (Image Library); and Ken Soehner, Chief Librarian, Thomas J. Watson Library. Figure 12. "Straw" coal scuttle bonnet made of embossed paper, British, 1830–1835. Figure 11. Embossed paper "straw" hat, British, ca. 1760–1770. ___________ notes 1. Reference: Paul Caffrey, "Nathanial Bermingham, Portrait of Mrs. Farmer," in An Exhibition of 18th, 19th and 20th Century Irish Paintings (Dublin: Gorry Gallery, 2005), 9. A catalog accompanying an exhibition at Gorry Gallery, March 2–12, 2005. http://www.gorrygallery.ie/Catalogs/2005march.pdf (accessed March 21, 2009). 2. References: Janet S. Byrne, "Ephemera and the Print Room Source," Metropolitan Museum Journal, vol. 24 (1989), 285–303. Hanna Egger, Glückwunschkarten im Biedermeier: Höflichkeit und gesellschaftlicher Zwang (München: Callwey, 1980). There are not many books in English on the history of Viennese greeting cards; but this German book, devoted to the subject, is heavily illustrated. 3. Reference: Lillian Randall, France 1420–1540, vol. 2 of Medieval and Renaissance Manuscripts in the Walters Art Gallery (Baltimore: Walters Art Gallery, 1992), 648–649. 4. Reference: Théātre de Cour: Les spectacles ą Fontainebleau au XVIIIe siécle (Paris: Réunion des musées nationaux, 2005), 106–108. A catalog accompanying an exhibition at the Musée national du chāteau de Fontainebleau, October 18 2005–January 23, 2006. Figure 13a. Papier-māché picture frame moldings illustrated in a trade catalog issued by Charles Frederick Bielefeld, British, 1840s. 5. Reference: Donald J. LaRocca, The Gods of War: Sacred Imagery and the Decoration of Arms and Armor (New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1996), 44–45. 6. Reference: Daniėlle O. Kisluk-Grosheide, "Cutting up Berchems, Watteaus, and Audrans: A ‘Lacca Povera' Secretary at the Metropolitan Museum of Art," Metropolitan Museum Journal, vol. 31 (1996), 81–97 7. Reference: Dianne van der Reyden and Donald C. Williams, The Technology and Conservation Treatment of a Nineteenth Century English "Papier-Mache" Chair (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution, 1986). http://aic.stanford.edu/ sg/wag/1986/vanderreyden86.pdf (accessed March 21, 2009). 8. Reference: Joy Ruskin, "Paper Filigree: A Woman's Pastime Becomes Art," Antiques Journal (March 2008): 26–29. http://www.hanesandruskin.com/ Paper%20Filigree.pdf (accessed March 21, 2009). 9. Reference: Harriet Hawkes, "Papier Māché," from the Building Conservation website. http://www.buildingconservation.com/articles/papiermache/papierma che.htm (accessed March 21, 2009).